Today’s patients rely on medications to ease symptoms, manage chronic conditions, and promote swift recoveries from acute illnesses. However, few pause to consider the extensive research required to develop these drugs or to ensure that they are safe to use.
This is where pharmacology makes a world of difference. This highly influential practice underscores much of what we appreciate about our modern pharmacies and the drugs they dispense.
In this guide, we will explore, what is the history of pharmacology and what does pharmacology look like today? By revisiting past developments, we can gain a better sense of current industry trends and even some insight into where the field is headed next.
A Historical Overview of Pharmacology
Offering crucial insight into the effects of drugs on human health and well-being, pharmacology has saved countless lives through the development of groundbreaking medications — all while preventing adverse reactions to powerful drugs.
This practice has come a long way in the last several decades, moving beyond largely trial-and-error origins to become a precise discipline influenced by many other scientific fields or niches.[1]
What Is Pharmacology the Study Of?
Pharmacology is the study of how drugs interact with living organisms. It explores their absorption, their impact on organisms, and their therapeutic applications based on these effects.
The National Institute of General Medical Sciences defines pharmacology as the study of how molecules (and specifically, medicines) interact with the body, with pharmacologists exploring the “chemical properties, biological effects, and therapeutic uses of medicines and other molecules.”[2]
Why Is the Study of Pharmacology Important?
Pharmacology is vital because it provides a systematic, research-focused approach to uncovering the therapeutic potential of medications while also helping to mitigate the potential downsides that these drugs could have if not used appropriately.
What Is Clinical Pharmacology?
While pharmacology offers a broad approach to studying the impact of drugs on biological systems, clinical pharmacology applies these principles specifically to drug interactions in humans, providing a crucial link between laboratory research and patient care.
Ancient Origins (Prehistory to Middle Ages)
Pharmacology has existed in some capacity for tens of thousands of years. While our understanding of prehistoric medicine remains largely limited, anthropologists can make some inferences by blending artifacts with practices in today’s few remaining hunter-gatherer societies.
Early Drug Use and Academia
Anthropologists believe that, in prehistoric times, humans would have relied on trial and error to determine whether various plants held medicinal uses. Evidence suggests that people used yarrow as an astringent tens of thousands of years ago, while cave drawings suggest the use of a surgical intervention known as trepanning for addressing mental health concerns.[3]
Documented evidence of early drug use became more abundant around 2,600 BCE, when early medicines were detailed by pressing cuneiform signs into clay tablets.
This effort took a step up during the Neo-Assyrian Empire, when Ashurbanipal — Assyria’s last great king — commissioned medical texts detailing the empire’s diverse treatments.[4] The result? The Nineveh Medical Encyclopaedia, which, at the time, was the world’s largest collection of medical knowledge.[5]
Traditional Chinese Medicine
Centered around concepts such as the vital energy known as qi, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) emerged thousands of years ago. This approach sought to re-establish the equilibrium between yin and yang, a goal it shares with its contemporary applications.
As one of the earliest known texts representing TCM, the Huangdi Neijing was compiled around 200 BCE. This adopted a conversational style, featuring discourse between the mythical Yellow Emperor and his advisors.[6]
Medieval Period and Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine
While the Byzantine Empire preserved a wealth of previously acquired medicinal expertise, advancements in this area largely stalled during the Middle Ages, with one exception: Avicenna. Also known as Ibn Sina, this remarkable philosopher and physician played a central role in advancing the Islamic Golden Age.
Avicenna presented a wealth of medical knowledge from various cultures and sources within the Canon of Medicine, which provided detailed information about the drugs of the time.[7]
Rise of Apothecaries
While ancient societies relied on herbalists to prepare and disperse remedies, the earliest version of pharmacists emerged with the rise of apothecaries in medieval Europe. These apothecaries established quality control while offering invaluable medical advice to community members.
Apothecary resources began to emerge around this time, including a collection known as the Antidotarium Nicolai, along with the Nuovo Receptario from an early guild in Florence.[8]
The Renaissance and Enlightenment (16th-18th Centuries)
Following a period of stagnation that lasted over a millennium, medicine and pharmacology once again began to advance at a rapid pace, spurred by the Renaissance. Drawing on insights from ancient texts, along with new discoveries made through global exploration, pharmacology became more systematic and empirical in nature.
Formalization of Botany
While a wealth of evidence suggests that humans have studied botany for thousands of years, botanical texts achieved widespread distribution following the invention of the printing press. Andrea Cesalpino advanced the field by revolutionizing plant classifications, with Carl Linnaeus later developing the standardized naming system that remains in widespread use to this day.
Early Experimentalism
During the Renaissance, experts such as apothecaries began observing drugs closely to determine their impact, using these insights to refine treatments. Paracelsus, widely regarded as the father of toxicology, revealed the importance of dosage and is credited with developing the ethos “the dose makes the poison.”[9]
First Pharmacopoeias
Reference guides known as pharmacopoeias emerged during the Renaissance, spurred, in part, by the previously mentioned Nuovo Receptario from Florence. One of the most influential pharmacopoeias was the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis, which placed the Royal College of Physicians in charge of all medicinal standards in England.[10]
The Birth of Modern Pharmacology (19th Century)
Our modern understanding of pharmacology emerged during the 19th century, when researchers began to apply the scientific method systematically to the study of drugs.
Isolation of Active Ingredients
One of the biggest developments in modern pharmacology emerged due to major advancements in chemistry, with scientists discovering (through iterative experimentation) how to separate components via distillation.
Friedrich Sertürner famously isolated morphine from opium, with Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou following soon after with the isolation of quinine from cinchona bark.[11]
Experimental Pharmacology
Close observation made its mark on pharmacology during the Renaissance, but French physiologist Claude Bernard drove a more systematic approach to experimentation.
While Bernard made several transformational discoveries, one of the most influential from a pharmacological perspective involved the concept of the milieu intérieur. This is an internal environment that would remain stable, allowing organisms to function optimally in spite of external developments.[12]
20th Century and Beyond
The discoveries of the 19th century were followed by major breakthroughs that made it possible to study drugs at the cellular level. Receptor theory gained momentum during the late 1800s and early 1900s, revealing how drugs can bind to specific molecular structures. This discovery led to insights into agonists that could activate receptors, along with antagonists that would inhibit them.
Modern Drug Discoveries
Several of the drugs we take for granted today actually emerged recently compared to the overall history of pharmacology. Examples include:
- Frederick Banting’s uncovered the power of insulin, which transformed diabetes from deadly into a manageable condition.[13]
- Albert Schatz discovered the early aminoglycoside drug streptomycin, which was the first truly effective treatment for tuberculosis.[14]
- Paul Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata created a “magic bullet” known as Salvarsan to treat syphilis, but it also formed the basis for a concept that eventually led to modern chemotherapy.[15]
Advances in Chemotherapy and Antimicrobials
Early sulfa drugs function as systemic antibiotics, capable of treating infections within the body. This was followed by penicillin as the first natural antibiotic, with soil microbes soon unleashing new opportunities upon being used for antibiotic discoveries.
The mid-20th century, specifically the 1940s and 1950s, marked the Golden Age of Antibiotics with the discovery of significant classes like tetracyclines. Concurrently, chemotherapy emerged as a primary cancer treatment, preceding the development of more targeted options such as monoclonal antibodies in the later part of the 20th century.
Key Figures of Pharmacology
We’ve already highlighted several influential individuals through our in-depth history of pharmacology timeline. That said, several additional figures deserve credit, including these inspiring individuals:[16]
Dioscorides
Serving with the Roman army, Pedanius Dioscorides traveled widely and, along the way, observed the diverse medicinal uses of numerous plants. This information formed the basis for the hugely influential text De Materia Medica.
Rudolf Buchheim
German pharmacologist Rudolf Buchheim is often credited with ushering in the “birth of pharmacology. He transformed his home into the first pharmacological lab and used systematic experimentation to reveal how drugs might interact with living organisms.
Oswald Schmiedeberg
As a pioneering pharmacologist, Oswald Schmiedeberg expanded upon Buchheim’s legacy, formalizing pharmacology as a respected academic discipline and training many researchers who would go on to make powerful pharmacological breakthroughs.[17]
Alexander Fleming
Best known for discovering penicillin and launching the antibiotic revolution, bacteriologist Alexander Fleming received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine and remains one of the world’s most well-known and respected scientists.[18]
Rudolf Boehm
Another prominent figure in early experimental pharmacology, Rudolf Boehm, conducted influential research on drugs’ physiological effects, ultimately encouraging the development of safer medications.
Careers in Pharmacology
Pharmacology has come a long way in the last several years, drawing on emerging research while also leveraging advanced technologies to better serve patients and entire communities. This growing field makes a huge difference in modern society and also offers many compelling career opportunities, as outlined below:
Pharmacist
Primarily responsible for filling prescriptions from physicians (and ensuring that these medications are dispensed and used correctly), pharmacists provide a crucial link between drug development and patient care. This role calls for a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.), with pharmacists also expected to pass the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX).
Pharmacy Technician
Pharmacy technicians are well-rounded professionals who offer valuable support within modern pharmacy environments. They take a hands-on approach to keeping pharmacies running smoothly, handling prescription-focused tasks such as measuring, packaging, and labeling, and administrative essentials like entering patient information and processing insurance claims.
This role maintains a much lower barrier to entry compared to other opportunities in the pharmacy landscape. Pharmacy technicians are expected, at a minimum, to possess a high school diploma. However, it is common for them to earn certificates or degrees through Pharmacy Technician programs, which in turn help them pass industry examinations such as the EXCPT and CPhT.
Medical Scientist
Pharmacists and pharmacy technicians may be the face of the pharmacy industry, but they are by no means the only professionals involved in ensuring the safe delivery of medications.
Also crucial are medical scientists, who work behind the scenes to investigate diseases and develop new treatments. These scientists conduct in-depth research to determine whether drugs are effective and safe, revealing optimal dosages and potential side effects.
Biochemist and Biophysicist
Similar in many respects to medical scientists, biochemists and biophysicists aim to understand the complex scientific principles that play into drug development and emerging medical technologies.
Specifically, biochemists explore the many chemical processes related to living organisms, while biophysicists draw on physics concepts and techniques to reveal how molecular structures or physical forces influence biological functions.
Begin a Meaningful Journey in Pharmacy Technology
Do you feel inspired by the history of clinical pharmacology? Perhaps you are excited to help this field reach new heights. You can get a strong start by studying pharmacy technology with Carrington College.
Offering in-depth preparation for the EXCPT and CPhT exams, our Pharmacy Technology program helps you develop the practical knowledge to support patients and contribute to the overall success of the modern pharmacy. Learn more or get started today.
Carrington College prepares students to take appropriate certification and licensure exams related to their individual majors. The College does not guarantee students will successfully pass these exams or be certified or licensed as a result of completing the program.
Sources:
[1] Britannica. “History of medicine.” https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine
[2] Crowley, R. “What Is Pharmacology?” National Institute of General Medical Sciences. https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2023/08/what-is-pharmacology/
[3] Jen, M. “Prehistoric Medicine: History, Procedures and Practices.” Anthropology. https://www.longdom.org/open-access-pdfs/prehistoric-medicine-history-procedures-and-practices.pdf
[4] The British Museum. “Reconstructing a 2,500 year old medical encyclopaedia.” https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/projects/reconstructing-2500-year-old-medical-encyclopaedia
[5] Simko, K. “Ancient healthcare fit for a king.” The British Museum. https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/ancient-healthcare-fit-king
[6] Gaur, R. “A brief history: Traditional Chinese medicinal system.” Pharmacological Research – Modern Chinese Medicine. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667142524000320
[7] Library of Congress. “The Canon of Medicine.” https://www.loc.gov/item/2021667335/
[8] National Library of Medicine. “First Official Pharmacopoeia (1498 A.D.).” https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-101405727-img
[9] Michaleas, S. et al. “Theophrastus Bombastus Von Hohenheim (Paracelsus) (1493–1541): The eminent physician and pioneer of toxicology.” Toxicology Reports. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214750021000299
[10] Wood, M. “A ‘weapon dressed as a book’: the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis.” Royal College of Physicians. https://history.rcp.ac.uk/blog/weapon-dressed-book-pharmacopoeia-londinensis
[11] Science Museum Group. “Original preparation of quinine by Pelletier and Caveton.” https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co184085/original-preparation-of-quinine-by-pelletier-and-caveton
[12] Habert, R. “Claude Bernard, the Founder of Modern Medicine.” Cells. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9139283/
[13] Diem, P. et al. “The discovery of insulin.” Diabetes Epidemiology and Management. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666970621000494
[14] Gerovich, Y. “Inspired by His Immigrant Heritage, Albert Schatz’s Discovery Saves Lives.” Jewish Federation of Greater New Haven. https://www.jewishnewhaven.org/press-releases/inspired-by-his-immigrant-heritage-albert-schatzs-discovery-saves-lives
[15] Kawamura, I. “Sahachiro Hata (1873-1938) and his contributions to the birth of antimicrobial chemotherapy.” Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1341321X23000466
[16] Philippu, A. et al. “History of pharmacology: 1—the Department of Pharmacology of the University of Tartu (Dorpat): genealogy and biographies.” Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9789002/
[17] Greim, H. “Oswald Schmiedeberg (1838–1921).” Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11582195/
[18] Britannica. “Alexander Fleming.” https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-Fleming
